Robert Arp - 1001-Ideas-That-Changed-the-Way-We-Think

Chapelle aux Saints cave, France.

It is difficult to pinpoint when the idea of honoring the dead began. There is some evidence to show that Homo heidelbergensis (who existed between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago) were the first proto-humans to bury their dead. Whether they honored their dead or ascribed some kind of spiritual aspect to the burial process is unknown, however. There are human burial sites from about 130,000 years ago that show more convincing evidence that those performing the burial intended to remember or honor the deceased, through the position of the body, the inclusion of items such as tools and animal bones with the body, and the addition of decorative elements to the tomb. This suggestion of ritual in the burial process could indicate that it was one of the first forms of religious practice.

“Our dead are never dead to us, until we have forgotten them.”

George Eliot, author

In some cultures or traditions, honoring the dead is an ongoing practice in which deceased relatives or ancestors are viewed as having a continued presence among, or influence over, the living. In others, the traditions that honor the dead occur immediately after someone’s death, or at various times throughout the year. Honoring the dead is not necessarily a religious tradition, though many religions have specific and extensive rituals for the practice.

Honoring the dead is a near-universal practice that exists across geographical, cultural, and religious boundaries. The shared rituals involved in the custom provide a social bond in societies, and a way to link the deceased with the living. These elements are strongly present in many religious rituals, often forming the basis of individual, and cultural, identities. MT

c. 400,000 BCE

Using Sharp Projectiles

Homo heidelbergensis

Creating tools and weapons with sharpened points or tips

Two examples of Solutrean Points. The Solutrean tool industry existed between c. 20,000 and c. 16,000 BCE, and was characterized by finely crafted, leaf-shaped blades.

Humanity’s first use of sharp projectiles predates history, as three wooden spears found in Schöningen, Germany, show that Homo heidelbergensis had used projectile weapons by at least 400,000 BCE, and perhaps as early as 500,000 BCE. The longest of the three spears measured 7 feet 7 inches (2.3 m) long and all of them had a thicker section toward the front in the style of a modern javelin, which suggests that they were specifically used for throwing rather than thrusting. By 300,000 BCE, Homo neanderthalensis had begun using shaped stone spear points, and by 64,000 BCE stone-tipped arrow heads first appeared in South Africa.

“It is easy to dodge a spear that comes in front of you, but hard to avoid an arrow shot from behind.”

Chinese proverb

Until the development of sharp projectiles, humans had to rely on blunt weapons, such as rocks, throwing sticks, and their hands and teeth. Sharp projectiles were far superior to blunt weapons as they were not only deadlier, but also could be used from a greater distance. This allowed people to hunt larger, more dangerous game while retaining some measure of security. Sharp projectiles spurred technological development, leading inventors to develop new methods of shaping stones, developing woodworking techniques, and, eventually, mining and casting metals. As further evidence of their importance, groups of wild chimpanzees in Senegal have recently been observed to fashion their own sharpened projectiles from tree branches for use in hunting. The frequency of projectile use was found to be higher among female chimpanzees, leading researchers to speculate that females may have played a key role in the evolution of tool technology among early humans.

Ever since the appearance of sharpened projectiles, human cultures have refined, perfected, and revered them for their simplicity and deadly efficiency. As the primary tools of warfare and survival, they were not replaced until relatively recently in human history when firearms became effective and widely available. MT

c. 250,000 BCE

Levallois Technique

Neanderthals

Neanderthal craftsmen develop a technique for making better flint tools

A flint tool shaped using the Levallois technique, discovered in Montreres, France. The core of a Levallois flake is often described as looking like the shell of a tortoise.

Dating back around 250,000 years, the Levallois technique is the name given to a method of knapping flint that was developed by Neanderthals and other proto-humans. The name derives from the Levallois-Perret suburb of Paris, France, where tools forged by this technique were discovered during archaeological digs in the nineteenth century.

“In terms of cutting tools (whether as knives or projectile points), the Levallois technique produced superior pieces.”

Brian Patrick Kooyman, professor of archaeology

The Levallois technique is a more refined version of earlier forms of stone knapping, which involved chipping pieces away from a prepared stone core. It enabled the tool’s creator to have much greater control over the shape and size of the final flake. The technique begins with selecting a pebble about the size of a hand. A striking platform is then formed at one end of the stone, and the edges are trimmed by chipping off pieces around the outline of the intended flake. The base of the stone is then struck in order to produce its distinctive dorsal ridge. When the striking platform is struck, the flake releases from the stone with a characteristic plano-convex configuration and all of its edges sharpened by the earlier chipping. The flake is then ready to use as a knife or as the point of an edged projectile weapon.

Populations distributed over a vast geographical region, from Africa to Northern Europe, employed the Levallois technique. It allowed the Neanderthals to perfect their spear-making industry, which in turn aided in the hunting of large animals. Being able to kill larger animals, and therefore feed more individuals while spending less time hunting, aided in the formation of stable people groups, enabling greater sedentism. It also allowed for the production of projectile points for early bow and arrow technology. The fact that the Levallois technique was refined and perfected by the Neanderthals gives the lie to the popular conception of them as crude and apelike brutes. APT

c. 150,000 BCE

Trade

Unknown

Exchanging goods, services, and other items of value

The first exchange of goods or services came about long before written history. There is evidence that long-distance commerce existed as far back as 150,000 years ago, and by the time that humanity emerged from the Neolithic period (10,000–2000 BCE) and began establishing cities and agrarian communities, trading had been firmly established as a vital part of life. The move toward a sedentry, agricultural lifestyle transformed the nature of human society, creating a surplus of food that allowed humans to evolve new occupations such as toolmaking and weaving. These craftspeople in turn created a surplus of their products, which they were then able to trade back for food. Villages began to specialize in making products that were in demand in other areas, and by 3,000 BCE ancient Mesopotamians had established trade routes with the urban centers of the Indus Valley Civilization, perhaps linking disparate urban areas

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